The Intricate Family Tree Of Kardashians: A Comprehensive Guide

The Kardashian family has become a cultural phenomenon, capturing public attention with their extravagant lifestyle, reality television empire, and influential social media presence. Understanding the family tree of Kardashians offers insights into the complex relationships and dynamics that have shaped this prominent family. While they are often in the limelight for their fashion, business ventures, and personal lives, a deeper dive into their genealogy reveals a rich tapestry of familial connections that contribute to their unique identity.

From the matriarch Kris Jenner to her six children, the Kardashian-Jenner clan represents a blend of different familial backgrounds and diverse personalities. This sprawling family tree includes well-known figures like Kim, Kourtney, Khloe, Rob, Kendall, and Kylie, each with their own stories and accomplishments. By tracing their lineage, we uncover the roots that have contributed to their rise in global prominence and their impact on popular culture.

In this article, we will explore the biography and significant milestones of the Kardashians, delve into the personal details of each family member, and provide a detailed analysis of their family tree. This comprehensive guide will also address frequently asked questions, offering a complete understanding of the family tree of Kardashians. Join us on this journey through one of the most famous families in the world, as we chart their history and discover what makes them an enduring icon of the modern era.

Table of Contents

• Biography of the Kardashians
• Kris Jenner: The Matriarch of the Kardashians
• Kardashian Siblings Overview
• Kim Kardashian: A Closer Look
• Kourtney Kardashian: Her Journey
• Khloe Kardashian: Personal and Professional Life
• Rob Kardashian: Life Away from the Spotlight
• Jenner Branch of the Family
• Kendall Jenner: Supermodel and Entrepreneur
• Kylie Jenner: Young Billionaire
• Expanding Family Tree of the Kardashians
• Family Dynamics and Interactions
• Impact on Pop Culture and Media
• Philanthropy and Social Initiatives
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Conclusion

Biography of the Kardashians

The Kardashian family’s legacy began with Robert Kardashian, a well-respected attorney known for his involvement in high-profile cases, most notably the O.J. Simpson trial. Born on February 22, 1944, Robert was of Armenian descent and married Kris Jenner (née Houghton) in 1978. Together, they had four children: Kourtney, Kim, Khloe, and Rob. The couple divorced in 1991, but Robert remained a significant figure in his children's lives until his death in 2003.

Kris Jenner, born on November 5, 1955, in San Diego, California, has been a pivotal force in shaping the Kardashian brand. After her divorce from Robert, she married former Olympian Bruce Jenner (now Caitlyn Jenner) in 1991, expanding the family with two more children, Kendall and Kylie Jenner. Kris's role as a businesswoman and manager has been instrumental in guiding her children through the complexities of fame and entrepreneurship.

The Kardashian siblings grew up in the spotlight, with their family's reality TV show, "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," debuting in 2007. The show provided a glimpse into their personal lives, showcasing their relationships, business ventures, and individual growth. Over the years, the Kardashians have expanded their influence beyond television, venturing into various industries, including fashion, beauty, and technology.

The Kardashian family continues to evolve, with each member pursuing their passions and leaving a mark on the world. Despite the challenges that come with fame, the Kardashians have demonstrated resilience and adaptability, capturing the public's imagination with their ongoing journey. Below is a table summarizing the personal details and biodata of the Kardashian family members.

Kris Jenner: The Matriarch of the Kardashians

Kris Jenner, the matriarch of the Kardashian family, has played a crucial role in orchestrating the success and public persona of her children. Her journey from a flight attendant to a media mogul is a testament to her business acumen and determination. Born Kristen Mary Houghton, Kris grew up in San Diego, where she developed a keen interest in business and management.

Her marriage to Robert Kardashian brought her into the spotlight, especially during the O.J. Simpson trial, where Robert served as a defense attorney. After their divorce, Kris faced the challenge of raising four children as a single mother. Her subsequent marriage to Bruce Jenner (now Caitlyn Jenner) introduced her to new opportunities and expanded her family with the addition of Kendall and Kylie.

Kris's vision for her family began to take shape with the launch of "Keeping Up with the Kardashians." The reality show offered a behind-the-scenes look at the Kardashian-Jenner lifestyle, capturing the attention of audiences worldwide. Kris's role as executive producer allowed her to control the narrative and ensure that her family remained at the forefront of pop culture.

Beyond reality TV, Kris has been a driving force in her children's business ventures, from fashion lines to beauty products. Her ability to adapt to changing trends and capitalize on social media has solidified the Kardashian brand as a dominant force in the entertainment industry. Despite the challenges of fame, Kris continues to support her children, guiding them through both personal and professional milestones.

Kardashian Siblings Overview

The Kardashian siblings, Kourtney, Kim, Khloe, and Rob, each bring their own unique talents and personalities to the family dynamic. While they share a common bond through their upbringing and experiences, their individual paths have led them to diverse careers and accomplishments.

Kourtney Kardashian, the eldest sibling, is known for her keen sense of style and dedication to health and wellness. Her entrepreneurial spirit is evident in her lifestyle brand, Poosh, which promotes holistic living and wellness products. Kourtney's focus on family and motherhood often influences her business endeavors, as she seeks to balance her personal and professional life.

Kim Kardashian, arguably the most recognizable member of the family, has built an empire through her ventures in fashion, beauty, and technology. Her brand, SKIMS, has redefined shapewear, while her influence as a social media icon has made her a global trendsetter. Kim's advocacy for criminal justice reform showcases her commitment to using her platform for positive change.

Khloe Kardashian, known for her resilience and candidness, has become a prominent figure in the fitness and fashion industries. As the co-founder of Good American, a size-inclusive clothing line, Khloe promotes body positivity and self-acceptance. Her journey through personal challenges has resonated with fans, inspiring others to embrace their own transformations.

Rob Kardashian, the only brother among the siblings, has maintained a lower profile compared to his sisters. Despite his preference for privacy, Rob has ventured into the fashion industry with his sock line, Arthur George. His journey has been marked by personal struggles, but he continues to focus on his role as a father and entrepreneur.

Kim Kardashian: A Closer Look

Kim Kardashian West, born on October 21, 1980, in Los Angeles, California, has become a household name through her multifaceted career and public persona. As the second eldest sibling, Kim has leveraged her reality TV fame into a successful business empire, encompassing fashion, beauty, and media.

Kim's rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her charisma and style captured the audience's attention. Her influence in fashion is undeniable, with numerous collaborations and endorsements that have solidified her status as a fashion icon. In 2019, she launched SKIMS, a shapewear brand that emphasizes inclusivity and body confidence, further expanding her impact on the fashion industry.

Beyond fashion, Kim has made significant strides in the beauty industry with her cosmetics line, KKW Beauty. Her products, known for their quality and innovation, have garnered a loyal following, contributing to her reputation as a beauty mogul. Kim's business acumen is reflected in her ability to identify market trends and deliver products that resonate with consumers worldwide.

In addition to her entrepreneurial endeavors, Kim has utilized her platform to advocate for social change, particularly in the realm of criminal justice reform. Inspired by her father's legal career, Kim has been involved in high-profile cases, working towards the release of wrongfully convicted individuals. Her efforts have brought attention to systemic issues within the justice system, highlighting her commitment to making a difference.

Despite her success, Kim remains grounded in her family values, often highlighting the importance of her role as a mother. Her dedication to her children and family underscores her multifaceted identity, balancing her public persona with her personal life. Kim Kardashian's journey continues to inspire and influence, as she navigates the challenges and opportunities that come with being a global icon.

Kourtney Kardashian: Her Journey

Kourtney Kardashian, born on April 18, 1979, in Los Angeles, California, is the eldest of the Kardashian siblings. Known for her chic style and commitment to health, Kourtney has carved out her own niche in the wellness and lifestyle sectors. Her journey is characterized by a focus on family, personal growth, and entrepreneurial endeavors.

Growing up in a high-profile family, Kourtney was first introduced to the public through "Keeping Up with the Kardashians." Her calm demeanor and straightforward approach often provided a sense of balance amid the family's dynamic personalities. Kourtney's dedication to her children and family life is a central theme in both her personal and professional pursuits.

In 2019, Kourtney launched Poosh, a lifestyle brand that reflects her passion for wellness and holistic living. The platform offers insights into beauty, health, and home, promoting a balanced and mindful lifestyle. Kourtney's emphasis on authenticity and self-care resonates with a broad audience, establishing her as a trusted voice in the wellness community.

Kourtney's style, characterized by its simplicity and elegance, has also made her a fashion influencer. Her collaborations with brands and appearances at fashion events highlight her keen eye for design and trends. Kourtney's ability to blend fashion with functionality has endeared her to fans who seek inspiration for everyday elegance.

Despite her busy schedule, Kourtney prioritizes her role as a mother, often sharing insights into her parenting journey. Her commitment to her children's well-being and development is evident, as she navigates the challenges of motherhood with grace and humor. Kourtney's journey is a testament to the power of authenticity and balance, inspiring others to embrace their unique paths.

Khloe Kardashian: Personal and Professional Life

Khloe Kardashian, born on June 27, 1984, in Los Angeles, California, is known for her resilience and candor. As the third Kardashian sibling, Khloe has become a prominent figure in the fashion and fitness industries, advocating for body positivity and self-love. Her journey is marked by personal growth and a commitment to empowering others.

Khloe's rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her humor and authenticity endeared her to fans. Her candid discussions about body image and self-acceptance have resonated with audiences, inspiring many to embrace their unique beauty. Khloe's dedication to fitness and wellness is evident in her journey, as she shares her experiences and insights with her followers.

In 2016, Khloe co-founded Good American, a size-inclusive clothing brand that promotes body positivity and diversity. The brand offers a range of denim, activewear, and lifestyle products designed to fit and flatter all body types. Khloe's commitment to inclusivity is reflected in the brand's ethos, as she seeks to empower women by providing clothing that celebrates their individuality.

Khloe's personal life, including her relationships and motherhood, has often been a topic of public interest. Her openness about her struggles and triumphs has endeared her to fans, who appreciate her vulnerability and strength. As a mother to her daughter True, Khloe emphasizes the importance of family and love, often sharing moments from her parenting journey.

Khloe Kardashian's story is one of transformation and empowerment, as she continues to challenge societal norms and inspire others to embrace their true selves. Her commitment to authenticity and self-love serves as a reminder of the power of resilience and the importance of staying true to oneself.

Rob Kardashian: Life Away from the Spotlight

Rob Kardashian, born on March 17, 1987, in Los Angeles, California, is the only brother among the Kardashian siblings. Known for his preference for privacy, Rob has maintained a lower profile compared to his sisters, focusing on his personal life and entrepreneurial ventures. Despite the challenges he has faced, Rob's journey is one of personal growth and resilience.

Rob first gained public attention through his appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where his charm and humor made him a fan favorite. However, as the family’s fame grew, Rob chose to step back from the spotlight, prioritizing his mental health and personal well-being. His decision to lead a more private life has allowed him to focus on his interests and responsibilities as a father.

In 2012, Rob launched Arthur George, a luxury sock line that reflects his interest in fashion and design. The brand offers a variety of bold and playful sock designs, catering to fashion-forward individuals who seek to express their unique style. Rob's entrepreneurial spirit is evident in his commitment to building a brand that resonates with consumers.

Rob's personal life, including his relationships and fatherhood, has often been a topic of public interest. His journey through personal struggles and triumphs has been marked by moments of vulnerability and strength. As a father to his daughter Dream, Rob emphasizes the importance of family and love, often sharing moments from his parenting journey.

Rob Kardashian's story is one of perseverance and self-discovery, as he continues to navigate the challenges of fame while maintaining his individuality. His commitment to authenticity and personal growth serves as a reminder of the power of resilience and the importance of staying true to oneself.

Jenner Branch of the Family

The Jenner branch of the family, consisting of Kendall and Kylie Jenner, represents the next generation of the Kardashian-Jenner legacy. As the daughters of Kris Jenner and Caitlyn Jenner, Kendall and Kylie have carved out their own paths in the fashion and beauty industries, becoming influential figures in their own right.

Kendall Jenner, born on November 3, 1995, in Los Angeles, California, is known for her successful modeling career and entrepreneurial ventures. Her rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her natural beauty and charisma captured the attention of audiences. Kendall's commitment to her craft is evident in her work with top fashion brands and designers, making her one of the most sought-after models in the industry.

Kendall's influence extends beyond the runway, as she ventures into the business world with her tequila brand, 818 Tequila. Her dedication to quality and authenticity is reflected in the brand's ethos, as she seeks to create a product that resonates with consumers. Kendall's entrepreneurial spirit is evident in her ability to identify opportunities and deliver products that cater to a diverse audience.

Kylie Jenner, born on August 10, 1997, in Los Angeles, California, is known for her successful beauty empire and social media influence. Her rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her style and charisma captured the attention of fans. In 2015, Kylie launched Kylie Cosmetics, a beauty brand known for its innovative products and inclusive offerings.

Kylie's influence in the beauty industry is undeniable, with numerous collaborations and endorsements that have solidified her status as a beauty mogul. Her commitment to quality and innovation is reflected in her products, as she seeks to deliver products that cater to diverse beauty needs. Kylie's entrepreneurial spirit is evident in her ability to identify trends and deliver products that resonate with consumers worldwide.

The Jenner sisters' journey is a testament to the power of determination and innovation, as they continue to challenge societal norms and inspire others to pursue their passions. Their commitment to authenticity and self-expression serves as a reminder of the importance of staying true to oneself and embracing one's unique path.

Kendall Jenner: Supermodel and Entrepreneur

Kendall Jenner, born on November 3, 1995, in Los Angeles, California, has established herself as a leading figure in the fashion industry. As a supermodel and entrepreneur, Kendall's journey is characterized by her dedication to her craft and her commitment to authenticity. Her rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her natural beauty and charisma captured the attention of audiences.

Kendall's modeling career took off in 2014 when she made her debut on the runway for high-profile fashion brands. Her work with top designers and brands has solidified her status as one of the most sought-after models in the industry. Kendall's influence extends beyond the runway, as she ventures into the business world with her tequila brand, 818 Tequila.

818 Tequila, launched in 2021, reflects Kendall's dedication to quality and authenticity. The brand offers a range of premium tequila products, crafted with care and attention to detail. Kendall's entrepreneurial spirit is evident in her ability to identify opportunities and deliver products that cater to a diverse audience.

Beyond her professional achievements, Kendall remains grounded in her personal values, often emphasizing the importance of family and self-expression. Her commitment to authenticity and self-confidence serves as a reminder of the power of staying true to oneself. Kendall's journey is a testament to the power of determination and innovation, as she continues to challenge societal norms and inspire others to pursue their passions.

Kylie Jenner: Young Billionaire

Kylie Jenner, born on August 10, 1997, in Los Angeles, California, has become a prominent figure in the beauty industry and a social media icon. As the youngest member of the Kardashian-Jenner family, Kylie's journey is characterized by her entrepreneurial spirit and her commitment to innovation. Her rise to fame began with her appearances on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," where her style and charisma captured the attention of fans.

In 2015, Kylie launched Kylie Cosmetics, a beauty brand known for its innovative products and inclusive offerings. The brand's signature product, the Kylie Lip Kit, became an instant success, solidifying Kylie's status as a beauty mogul. Her commitment to quality and innovation is reflected in her products, as she seeks to deliver products that cater to diverse beauty needs.

Kylie's influence in the beauty industry is undeniable, with numerous collaborations and endorsements that have solidified her status as a beauty mogul. Her entrepreneurial spirit is evident in her ability to identify trends and deliver products that resonate with consumers worldwide. In 2019, Kylie was named the youngest self-made billionaire by Forbes, a testament to her success and influence.

Beyond her professional achievements, Kylie remains grounded in her personal values, often emphasizing the importance of family and self-expression. Her commitment to authenticity and self-confidence serves as a reminder of the power of staying true to oneself. Kylie's journey is a testament to the power of determination and innovation, as she continues to challenge societal norms and inspire others to pursue their passions.

Expanding Family Tree of the Kardashians

The Kardashian family tree continues to expand as each member embarks on their own journey of personal growth and family life. With the addition of new generations, the family tree of Kardashians reflects a rich tapestry of relationships and dynamics that contribute to their unique identity.

Kourtney Kardashian, the eldest sibling, is a mother to three children: Mason, Penelope, and Reign, whom she shares with her former partner Scott Disick. Kourtney's commitment to her children's well-being and development is evident, as she navigates the challenges of motherhood with grace and humor.

Kim Kardashian, a mother of four, shares her children North, Saint, Chicago, and Psalm with her former husband Kanye West. Kim's dedication to her family is a central theme in her personal and professional life, as she seeks to balance her roles as a mother and a businesswoman.

Khloe Kardashian is a mother to her daughter True, whom she shares with her former partner Tristan Thompson. Khloe's emphasis on family and love is evident in her parenting journey, as she seeks to provide a nurturing and supportive environment for her daughter.

Rob Kardashian is a father to his daughter Dream, whom he shares with his former partner Blac Chyna. Despite the challenges he has faced, Rob's commitment to his role as a father is evident, as he prioritizes his daughter's well-being and happiness.

Kylie Jenner, the youngest sibling, is a mother to her daughter Stormi, whom she shares with her former partner Travis Scott. Kylie's dedication to her family is a central theme in her personal and professional life, as she seeks to balance her roles as a mother and a businesswoman.

The expanding family tree of the Kardashians reflects a rich tapestry of relationships and dynamics that contribute to their unique identity. As the family continues to grow, their commitment to family values and personal growth remains a central theme in their ongoing journey.

Family Dynamics and Interactions

The Kardashian family dynamics and interactions are characterized by a blend of love, support, and occasional tension. As one of the most famous families in the world, the Kardashians navigate the complexities of their relationships while maintaining a strong sense of unity and loyalty.

Kris Jenner, the family matriarch, plays a pivotal role in orchestrating the family's interactions and dynamics. Her ability to balance her roles as a mother, manager, and confidante is evident in her approach to family life. Kris's commitment to her children's success and well-being is a central theme in the family's journey, as she seeks to guide them through both personal and professional milestones.

The Kardashian siblings, each with their own unique personalities and interests, bring different perspectives to the family dynamic. Kourtney, known for her calm demeanor and focus on family, often provides a sense of balance amid the family's dynamic personalities. Kim's influence in fashion and media adds a level of sophistication and trendsetting to the family dynamic, while Khloe's resilience and humor offer a sense of authenticity and relatability.

Rob Kardashian, despite his preference for privacy, remains a valued member of the family, contributing his own perspective and experiences to the family dynamic. His journey through personal struggles and triumphs offers a sense of vulnerability and strength, underscoring the importance of personal growth and self-discovery.

The Jenner sisters, Kendall and Kylie, bring a new generation of perspectives to the family dynamic, with their influence in fashion and beauty industries. Kendall's commitment to authenticity and self-confidence complements Kylie's entrepreneurial spirit and innovation, as they navigate their own paths within the family legacy.

The Kardashian family's interactions and dynamics are a testament to their resilience and adaptability, as they continue to navigate the challenges and opportunities that come with fame. Their commitment to family values and personal growth serves as a reminder of the power of unity and love, as they continue to inspire and influence audiences worldwide.

Impact on Pop Culture and Media

The Kardashian family's impact on pop culture and media is undeniable, as they have redefined the standards of fame and influence in the modern era. Through their reality TV empire, social media presence, and entrepreneurial ventures, the Kardashians have become a cultural phenomenon, shaping trends and setting new norms.

"Keeping Up with the Kardashians," the reality TV show that brought the family into the spotlight, has been a significant influence on pop culture. The show's behind-the-scenes look at the Kardashian-Jenner lifestyle captivated audiences worldwide, showcasing their relationships, business ventures, and individual growth. The show's success paved the way for numerous spin-offs and inspired a new wave of reality television programming.

The Kardashians' influence extends beyond television, as they have leveraged social media to build their personal brands and connect with fans. Each family member has cultivated a substantial following on platforms like Instagram and Twitter, where they share insights into their personal lives and promote their business ventures. Their ability to engage with audiences and influence trends has solidified their status as social media icons.

The family's entrepreneurial ventures, including fashion lines, beauty products, and lifestyle brands, have also contributed to their impact on pop culture. The Kardashians have redefined the beauty and fashion industries, promoting inclusivity and diversity through their offerings. Their ability to identify market trends and deliver products that resonate with consumers has established them as leaders in the industry.

Beyond their professional achievements, the Kardashians have used their platform to advocate for social change, particularly in the realms of criminal justice reform and body positivity. Their commitment to using their influence for positive change highlights their dedication to making a difference and inspiring others to do the same.

The Kardashian family's impact on pop culture and media is a testament to their resilience and adaptability, as they continue to challenge societal norms and inspire audiences worldwide. Their commitment to authenticity and innovation serves as a reminder of the power of staying true to oneself and embracing one's unique path.

Philanthropy and Social Initiatives

The Kardashian family's commitment to philanthropy and social initiatives is an integral part of their identity, as they seek to use their influence for positive change. Through their charitable efforts and advocacy work, the Kardashians have highlighted important social issues and inspired others to take action.

Kris Jenner, the family matriarch, has been involved in various charitable organizations and initiatives, emphasizing the importance of giving back to the community. Her commitment to philanthropy is evident in her support for causes related to children's health, education, and the arts. Kris's dedication to making a difference serves as an example for her children, who have embraced their own philanthropic efforts.

Kim Kardashian's advocacy for criminal justice reform has been a significant focus of her philanthropic work. Inspired by her father's legal career, Kim has been involved in high-profile cases, working towards the release of wrongfully convicted individuals. Her efforts have brought attention to systemic issues within the justice system, highlighting her commitment to making a difference and inspiring others to do the same.

Khloe Kardashian's involvement in charitable initiatives reflects her commitment to body positivity and self-acceptance. Through her work with organizations that promote mental health and wellness, Khloe seeks to empower individuals to embrace their unique beauty and live authentically. Her dedication to making a positive impact is evident in her support for causes that align with her values.

Kendall and Kylie Jenner have also embraced their own philanthropic efforts, supporting causes related to children's health and education. Their commitment to making a difference is reflected in their involvement with various charitable organizations and initiatives, as they seek to use their influence for positive change.

The Kardashian family's commitment to philanthropy and social initiatives is a testament to their resilience and adaptability, as they continue to challenge societal norms and inspire audiences worldwide. Their dedication to using their influence for positive change serves as a reminder of the power of giving back and making a difference.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the origin of the Kardashian family?
   The Kardashian family originates from Armenian descent on their father's side. Robert Kardashian, the patriarch, was a well-respected attorney known for his involvement in high-profile cases like the O.J. Simpson trial.
2. How did the Kardashians become famous?
   The Kardashians rose to fame through their reality TV show, "Keeping Up with the Kardashians," which debuted in 2007. The show offered a behind-the-scenes look at their personal lives, capturing the audience's attention and becoming a cultural phenomenon.
3. What businesses are the Kardashians involved in?
   The Kardashians are involved in various businesses, including fashion, beauty, and lifestyle brands. Notable ventures include Kim's SKIMS, Kourtney's Poosh, Khloe's Good American, Rob's Arthur George, Kendall's 818 Tequila, and Kylie's Kylie Cosmetics.
4. How do the Kardashians influence pop culture?
   The Kardashians influence pop culture through their reality TV empire, social media presence, and entrepreneurial ventures. They have redefined beauty and fashion standards, promoted inclusivity, and inspired trends worldwide.
5. What philanthropic efforts are the Kardashians involved in?
   The Kardashians are involved in various philanthropic efforts, including advocacy for criminal justice reform, mental health, and children's health and education. They use their platform to highlight important social issues and inspire positive change.
6. How does the family tree of Kardashians continue to expand?
   The family tree of Kardashians continues to expand as each member embarks on their own journey of personal growth and family life. The addition of new generations, including the children of Kourtney, Kim, Khloe, Rob, and Kylie, reflects a rich tapestry of relationships and dynamics.

Conclusion

The Kardashian family, with their intricate family tree and dynamic relationships, continues to captivate and influence audiences worldwide. From their rise to fame through reality television to their entrepreneurial ventures and philanthropic efforts, the Kardashians have left an indelible mark on pop culture and media. Their commitment to family values, personal growth, and social change serves as a testament to their resilience and adaptability, inspiring others to embrace their unique paths and make a difference in the world. As the Kardashians continue to expand their legacy, their influence and impact will undoubtedly endure, shaping the cultural landscape for generations to come.

For more detailed insights into the family tree of the Kardashians, you can explore additional resources and genealogical studies available online.

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